TNF and infection: Infection of MDMs with MERS-CoV appreciably induced the secretion of antiviral cytokines (IFN-α2, IFN-γ, and IL-12p40), moderately or appreciably up-regulated proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6), and variably upregulated inflammatory chemokines (MIP-1α, IP-10, RANTES, IL-8).