The upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines by hCD28 stimulation was particularly relevant in the context of autoimmune diseases, such as MS and T1D, where we recently evidenced that CD28 stimulation by agonistic Abs strongly upregulated IL-8, IL-6, and IL-17A expression and production9,10. Here, CD28 is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.