Together with increases in several plasma cytokines and chemokines noted within 24 h of first PG545 treatment, for example, IFNγ, MCP-1 and IP-10 in the 100 mg cohort, such changes have been previously associated with immunomodulators such as TLR agonists.31–35 Though these changes may have some utility as biomarkers of inflammation and immune function, the new clinical study will examine not only T-cell-associated markers in PBMCs but also immune cell populations within the tumour microenvironment (TME), as this may be more predictive of clinical responses. Here, IFNG is linked to neoplasm.