Also a GPI-based treatment strategy, where the parasite-derived GPI moiety (i.e., most potent parasite-derived TNF-inducing molecule involved in M1 triggering) was used to reprogram macrophages toward an anti-inflammatory state (i.e., reflected by a reduced inflammatory cytokine production and increased IL-10 production), was shown to alleviate anemia in both clonal as well as natural/non-clonal T. brucei infections (132). Here, TNF is linked to anemia.