TNF and Alzheimer disease: These studies are in line with emerging evidence suggesting that inflammation has a pivotal role in disease pathogenesis, as markers of inflammation, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and other cytokines, have been shown to be increased in the brain, CSF, and plasma of AD patients (Perry et al., 2010; Swardfager et al., 2010; Czirr and Wyss-Coray, 2012; Alcolea et al., 2014; Heneka et al., 2015a; Hong et al., 2016a; Salter and Stevens, 2017).