TNF and cutaneous leishmaniasis: To further ascertain the cooperation of type I IFNs and IL-12, we investigated whether the intracutaneous and intraperitoneal application of CpG-ODN 1668 indeed leads to a simultaneous upregulation of type I IFNs, IL-12, and possibly other cytokines (IFN-γ and TNF) that are known for their macrophage activating and protective effects in murine cutaneous leishmaniasis (53–56).