Expression of PD-L1 and/or PD-1 has been described for numerous types of cancers associated with viral infection [88], including polycyclic virus-associated Merkel cell carcinoma [89], hepatitis B virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma [33], human papillomavirus-associated head and neck cancer, and Epstein-Barr virus-related nasopharyngeal carcinoma [90]. Here, PDCD1 is linked to cancer.