In cancer, TGF-β can be either a tumor suppressor or a promoter depending on the temporal stage of the disease.479 In the early stage of tumors initiation, TGF-β limits the growth of tumor cells through its antiproliferative and proapoptotic actions.480 Conversely, during tumor progression, TGF-β acts as a tumor-promoter by inducing proliferation, angiogenesis, and immunosuppression, and thus promotes invasion and metastasis of cancer.481 The loss of function of TGF-β signaling also contributes to certain tumor types. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and cancer.