NEDD4L and HIV infectious disease: Although NEDD4L has not previously been studied in the context of other bacteria, it has been linked to viral infections including HIV infection where K63-linked ubiquitination of the viral protein Gag by NEDD4L plays an important role in viral budding and in enterovirus 71 where it may function via altering IFN-β production (Chung et al., 2008; Kuo et al., 2015).