TNF and infection: Activated immune cells induce Fas-L and upregulate Fas, TNF and TRAIL to induce apoptosis in the cells (Ju et al., 1995; Nagata, 1997); and infection of HIV-1 can further exaggerate hepatocytes death by triggering TLR-mediated innate immune response and by elevated proinflammatory cytokines in the liver-immune cell milieu (Sahin et al., 2013).