TNF and cancer: Chronic inflammation is known to trigger early changes associated with the development of cancer through activation of hepatic tumor associated-macrophages and Kupffer cells (mirrored by ED1, and ED2 respectively) as well as the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), nitric oxide (NO) and transcription factors such as NF-kB33,37–39.