TNF and infection: CD16+ monocytes (including intermediate and non-classical monocytes [30]) and specifically intermediate monocytes have been termed “proinflammatory” based on their higher production of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6), IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and because of the expansion of these cells in infections and inflammatory diseases [30, 31].