TFF2 and inflammation: Despite SP, a neuropeptide of the tachykinin family, being involving in protecting cerebellar granule cells from apoptosis induced by toxic Aβ [36], substantial studies indicated that increased expressions of SP and its receptor, neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R), are pathologically involved in different types of neurological injuries, e.g. TBI [37], increased vascular permeability of the BBB and acute neurogenic inflammation [38], and various diseases, e.g. cancer, murine schistosomiasis [39], cysticercosis and trypanosomiasis [40].