Interesting studies have suggested that in vivo and in vitro HFD feeding and treatments with palmitate prime NLRP3 inflammasome via TLR2- and TLR4-mediated NF-κB signaling pathways in macrophages, dendritic cells and Kupffer cells to upregulate expression of Il-1β and Nlrp3, leading to peripheral inflammation, obesity, hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance41–43. Here, TLR4 is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.