TNF and Insulin resistance: Of these cells, recruited macrophages and resident Kupffer cells secrete diverse cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1β, which contribute to insulin resistance in hepatocytes by upregulating the activation of inhibitor of κB kinase-β/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/activator protein-12–4.