AFP and kidney cancer: AFP and β-hCG are expressed not only in germ cell tumors, but also in other neoplasms; specifically, increased levels of β-hCG have been found in neuroendocrine tumors, cancers of kidney, lung, head and neck, bladder and GI tract [47–49], while increased levels of AFP have been found in liver diseases [50–51]; on the other hand, LDH is nonspecific and may be discovered in different conditions both benign and malignant (see Table 2).