It is classically regarded as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumorigenic and anti-proliferative, but may under certain conditions exhibit contradictory effects, both oncogenic and tumor-suppressing, depending on the cellular context (99) As these culture studies indicated, activin A or TGFβ1 signaling in testis cancer may restrict seminoma growth by promoting cellular differentiation, thus further efforts to elucidate the functional interplay of these ligands with other cytokines in the tumor microenvironment will be informative. Here, TGFB1 is linked to testicular cancer.