We found that both photothrombosis and MCAO for 14 days showed upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines release including IL-1α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-6, TNF-α, and CD69 compared with sham control (Photothrombosis vs. sham, n = 4 per group, IL-1α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-6, TNF-α, and CD69, p < 0.01; MCAO vs. sham, n = 4 per group, IL-1α, IFN-γ, IL-6, p < 0.05; CD69, p < 0.01), suggesting the brain inflammation persists until 14 days after brain ischemia (Fig. 3c). Here, TNF is linked to brain inflammatory disease.