INS and alcohol dependence: Previous human andexperimental animal studies demonstrated roles for brain insulin and insulin-likegrowth factor type 1 (IGF-1) resistance, together with increased oxidative stress asmediators of neurodegeneration [2–7].Alcohol-related impairments in brain insulin and IGF-1 signaling are associated withreduced insulin and IGF-1 receptor tyrosine phosphorylation, decreased signalingthrough insulin receptor substrate proteins, phospho-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K), andAkt, increased activation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β),and attendant reductions inneuronal cholinergic function [7–10].