TNF and pulmonary edema: Previous clinical studies showed that the levels of serum cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, IL-10, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), in EV-A71-infected patients with both brainstem encephalitis and pulmonary edema were significantly higher than those in patients with only brainstem encephalitis [6–8].