In concert with previous in vivo data showing the involvement of TLR442 and IL-1β43,44 in diabetes-induced retinal inflammation and microvascular injury, our current in vitro and in vivo results as well as human data highlighted the significance of AGE-TLR4 signaling pathway to induce IL-1β in monocyte-derived macrophages and microglial cells (Figs 4, 6, 7), which was required for upregulation of galectin-1 in Müller glial cells (Figs 2, 3, 5). Here, TLR4 is linked to diabetes mellitus.