TNF and colitis: We evaluated cytokine production in inflamed regions in the bowel and found that the production of Th1 cytokines such as IFN-γ and TNF-α was highly increased (37.4- and 3.1-fold higher, respectively), while the production of none of the Th2/17 cytokines, including IL-4 and IL-17A, was increased, indicating that CS exposure-induced colitis resembles Crohn’s disease (Figures 1C,D).