This could also explain why few previous studies found FBXO32 to function as a tumor suppressor in gastric and urothelial carcinoma downstream of TGF-β signaling31, 32, while our own observations made in multiple model systems including primary EMT, metastatic cancer cell lines and clinical samples conclude that FBXO32 functions as a promoter of tumorigenicity and metastasis. Here, TGFB1 is linked to urothelial carcinoma.