TNF and ischemia reperfusion injury: In contrast to the results of a previous study, vinpocetine inhibited TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation by directly targeting IKK.[25] This discrepancy may be attributed to the various negative regulatory mechanisms involved in regulating TLR-mediated immune responses.[34] Based on these data, the inhibitory effect of vinpocetine on the inflammatory response induced by ischemia-reperfusion injury may also be involved in TLR4 signaling, thereby revealing a previously undescribed action of vinpocetine.