TNF and infection: In children with asymptomatic infection (patent or subpatent) at time of blood draw, we observed a lower frequency of total Pf-specific CD4 T cells (Figure 1C), and of CD4 T cells producing any of the three cytokines (IFNγ, IL10, and TNFα), as well as all multi-cytokine-producing combinations defined by Boolean gating (Figure 1D; Figure S4A in Supplementary Material).