TNF and pulmonary tuberculosis: Using PDE4 inhibitors, such as CC-3052 (25 mg/kg body weight) and CC-11050 (25 or 50 mg/kg body weight), as adjunct to isoniazid, we have shown significantly reduced macrophage activation, expression of TNF-α, lung fibrosis and necrosis, and tissue bacterial load in a mouse and rabbit models of pulmonary TB (31, 60, 136, 137).