In contrast to these and our data showing pro-inflammatory actions of TGF-β with inhibitory effects on mucociliary clearance and CFTR function in normal or CF bronchial epithelia12,37,38, several other reports demonstrate TGF-β-mediated anti-inflammatory signaling including decreased Smad 3 levels in CF airway cells39–42. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and cystic fibrosis.