PARP1 and serum lipopolysaccharide activity: In particular, it was demonstrated that (i) female mouse models are partially resistant to cerebral ischemia, endotoxemia and autoimmune nephritis; (ii) treatment of male mice with estradiol reduces PARP1 activation and exerts a protective effect against cerebral ischemia, endotoxemia and autoimmune nephritis [46, 47, 50]; (iii) in the absence of functional PARP1, male mice are preferentially protected against cerebral ischemia, endotoxemia and autoimmune nephritis compared to female mice, in which PARP1 deletion/inhibition offered no benefit in pathological outcome.