In another pre-clinical study, that used ampicillin, bacitracin, meropenem, neomycin, and vancomycin, novel object recognition, but not spatial memory, was impaired in antibiotic-treated mice and this cognitive deficit was associated with brain region-specific changes in the expression of cognition-relevant signaling molecules, notably BDNF, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit 2B, serotonin transporter and neuropeptide Y system. Here, NPY is linked to Cognitive impairment.