CCL2 and infection: These toxins have been shown to up-regulate chemokine monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1, CCL2) and IL-8 (CCL8) [63,64] and increase expression of cellular adhesion molecules ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin on endothelial cells [65], suggesting that the recruitment of the cellular aspects of host immunity to the infection site is interfered with.