TNF and Chagas disease: Elevated levels of TNF-α and IL-6 have been associated with advanced stages of Chagas disease and negatively with the cardiac ejection fraction (Mendoza et al. 2005, López et al. 2006), while high levels of IL-10 have been observed in asymptomatic patients in the indeterminate phase of Chagas disease, and patients who have developed cardiac disorders have reduced levels of this cytokine (Sousa et al. 2014).