Although we did not measure reactive oxygen species (ROS), ROS signaling is crucial during innate and adaptive immunity and the effect of post-translational modifications on proteins related to ROS signaling may be playing a role on the immunomodulation observed after chronic alcohol exposure of MDDCs such as in the case of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF-1α)56 or elevated mitochondrial superoxide (O2−) levels, which has been shown to disrupt normal T-cell development impairing adaptive immune function under other stress conditions such as influenza challenge57. Here, HIF1A is linked to influenza.