In agreement with our current finding, higher IgG titres to MSP1-19 have been observed in sporadically rather than chronically exposed volunteers in an endemic region of Brazil [37]; together this suggests that in chronically exposed individuals, such as PNG children, MSP1-19 and MSP5 may be able to escape recognition of the humoral immune system or that such low-density infections are unable to adequately boost the IgG response. Here, ATAD1 is linked to infection.