To define this IBD-tissue-specific context, we used gene expression data generated from intestinal tissues isolated from three independent populations of patients with IBD representing different stages of disease: treatment-naive pediatric patients (RISK cohort)11, patients refractory to anti–tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α treatment who have participated in an ustekinumab clinical trial (CERTIFI cohort)12,13, and patients with advanced disease (novel MSH population) (Supplementary Table 1). Here, TNF is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.