TNF and brain injury: During inflammation initiated by perinatal brain injury (Hagberg et al., 2012), activation of intrinsic and extrinsic immune cells will produce reactive oxygen species, release excitatory amino acid agonists, proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1β, IL-18, TNF-α), chemokines (Bona et al., 1999), and tumor necrosis factors (e.g., TNF-α, TNF-β, FasL, TRAIL, TWEAK) (Taylor et al., 2005; Yepes et al., 2005; Hoffmann et al., 2009; Hagberg et al., 2015) that may contribute to cell death.