TNF and Burkholderia Infections: Since Nramp1 is well-known to have pleiotropic effects on release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL1-β, TNF-α and IL-6, in response to bacterial uptake (Valdez et al., 2008), we also investigated the effects of Nramp1 on production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to Burkholderia infection.