TNF and asthma: ASMCs from patients with asthma are in a hyperproliferative phase, overexpress the chemokines chemokine (C–C motif) ligand (CCL) 11 (CCL11) and CXCL8, and particularly in patients with severe asthma, there is a reduced effect of corticosteroids in inhibiting TNFα-induced release of CCL11 and CXCL8 [14,15].