TNF and acute respiratory distress syndrome: In experimental ARDS in rats, LPS stimulation and mechanical ventilation have been shown to act synergistically, amplifying the release of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and MIP-2 (CXCL-2) in the bronchoalveolar lavage and this cellular response is mediated by activation of MAPKs, e.g. ERK1/2, SAPK/JNK and p38 [31].