TNF and ventilator-associated pneumonia: Cytokines such as TNF-α (p = 0.002 Fig 3A), IFN-γ (p = 0.02, Fig 3B), IL-1β (p<0.001, Fig 3C), and IL-12p70 (p = 0.02, Fig 3E) were significantly elevated in patients with VAP, as was the chemokine IL-8 (p = 0.003, Fig 3D).