PPARA and chronic kidney disease: There is evidence that non-selective PPAR agonists (α + γ) such as pioglitazone could contribute to carcinogenesis (Oleksiewicz et al., 2008; Piccinni et al., 2011), and a recent study linked bladder cancer to the development of chronic kidney disease as an effect of long-term use of pioglitazone (Lee et al., 2014).