TNF and infection: Notably, PF4/CXCL4 was elevated in plasma of P. berghei ANKA-infected mice and demonstrated to induce TNF secretion from peritoneal macrophages and T cells in vitro, and Cxcl4-deficiency resulted in reduced serum TNF and IFN-γ levels during P. berghei ANKA-infection (Srivastava et al., 2008), indicating that PF4/CXCL4 contributes to establishing a pro-inflammatory environment, which might amplify further immune responses and could thereby promote CM pathogenesis.