TNF and malaria: Release of parasite- and host-derived molecules due to erythrocyte rupture was described to induce TNF in vitro (Kwiatkowski et al., 1989; Bate and Kwiatkowski, 1994), and peaks in TNF serum concentration were found to coincide with elevated body temperature during P. vivax infection (Karunaweera et al., 1992), indicating that malaria fever is elicited by repeated release of PAMPs and DAMPs.