In addition to beneficial effects on epithelial integrity restoration, increased expression of TFF-3 can help to ameliorate the altered immune response exerted by EcN OMVs in experimental colitis, since overexpression of this peptide has been reported to abolish the IL-1β-induced upregulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8 and TNFα (Lin et al., 2013). Here, IL1B is linked to colitis.