IL4 and parasitic infectious disease: Since parasitic infections are associated with an increased Th2-type response, we anticipated that the Th2 cytokines might be increased in VL patients co-infected with IP and that this might affect inflammation, but as shown by the similar levels of inflammatory mediators, the levels of inflammation are not altered in VL patients co-infected with IP; and indeed the levels of IL-5 were similar and those of IL-4 and IL-13 were below the detection limits of the ELISA we used.