CD38 and HIV infectious disease: Analysis of T cell and monocyte activation markers confirmed the well-established effect of viremic HIV infection on heightened CD4+ and CD8+ T cell activation (as assessed by HLA-DR/CD38 coexpression; p < 0.0001 for both vs HIV− MSM, Figures 2F,G), expansion of inflammatory intermediate CD14++CD16+ monocytes (p < 0.0001 vs HIV− MSM, Figure 2H), and concomitant reduction in classical CD14++CD16− monocyte proportion (p = 0.008, data not shown).