TNF and atherosclerosis: More recently, we realized that PVAT not only stores triacylglycerols/triglycerides and free fatty acids (FFAs) participating in energy metabolism but also secretes quantities of adipokines, such as leptin, adiponectin, visfatin, resistin, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1), which play indispensable roles in atherosclerosis by mediating SMC migration and proliferation [49], promoting neointimal hyperplasia and formation [50, 51], stimulating inflammation responses and oxidative stress [52], and regulating vascular tone [53] (Figure 4).