TNF and atherosclerosis: During the initial phase of atherosclerosis (inflammation), HIV-1 replication induces several inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IL-18, IFN-α), with IL-6 having a central role in up-regulating CCL2 and M-CSF, thus favoring the recruitment of monocytes and their differentiation into activated macrophages.