Interestingly, studies in human cancer cell lines have shown that recombinant VP1 downregulates IKK/NF-κB and cyclooxygenase-2/prostaglandin E2 (COX-2/PGE2) signaling after binding to integrin receptors in target cells, which might be relevant for immune response pathways (Ho et al., 2014). Here, PTGS2 is linked to cancer.