ATF2 and viral infectious disease: It is well documented that the p38 MAPK pathway is activated by various external stimuli, including pro-inflammatory cytokines and viral infection.29, 30 Upon activation of p38 MAPK, the phosphorylated protein regulates downstream kinases MK2 and MK3, mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinases (MSKs) 1 and 2, and several transcription factors, including activating transcription factor 2 (ATF-2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), and Myc (Figure 3A).