VEGFA and neoplasm: So far, defective antigen presentation, tumour-induced inhibitory checkpoint pathways against effector T cell activity, infiltrating regulatory T cells (Tregs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and secretion of immunosuppressive cytokines, such as transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), represent the major mechanisms for escaping [15].