TNF and cancer: The factors released by the MSCs, which are cells with well-established tumor-promoting roles (109–113), can contribute to cancer progression by promoting two complementing processes: (1) they may enrich the TME with pro-inflammatory mediators that have been identified as major contributors to tumor progression, such as CCL2, CXCL8 and Cox-2 (37–39, 62, 63, 114); (2) In parallel, the factors released by the TNFα + TGFβ1-stimulated MSCs, pro-inflammatory and others, may act directly on the cancer cells to promote their migratory and invasive properties, as we have shown in the current study.