CSF2 and neoplasm: It is well established that a variety of proinflammatory cytokines, which are produced by epithelial and stromal cells in tumor microenvironment, are involved in CAC pathogenesis by regulating neoplastic cell proliferation and/or forming tumor-promoting niches.24 As one important member of proinflammatory cytokine family, the role of GM-CSF in CAC has recently been uncovered that it promoted CAC development by eliciting epithelial VEGF release.9 However, the axis of GM-CSF-VEGF could not fully explain the tumor-promoting effect of GM-CSF.